Friday, June 28, 2024

A Kurdish wedding five centuries ago

Sharafxan describes his father's wedding to the monarch of Sason's daughter, providing a glimpse into five-century-old Kurdish wedding customs. And, indeed, the wedding feast lasted for one week. The text is interesting because it depicts collective cohesion among the Kurdish dynasties. Weddings were a crucial occasion for royal households to demonstrate who their dynastic friends were. The paragraph also contains an implicit custom: dancing. Dancing has a long tradition in Kurdish culture, particularly among the warrior class. The symbolism is practically gone in its current forms, but it may still be observed in the modern mutation if one observes the movements and considers what they signify. 

Sharafxan (16th-century):
This joyful gathering was so well-adorned that the celestial sphere, trad-ing places with the world, opened its thousands of astonished eyes to contemplate it, thus offering on a plate, as tokens of congratulation and silver coins for the guests, the diamond-like stars it had fostered for years in its pocket and garment. As the banquet assembly, gathered in the tent pavilion, was dressed with the beauty and elegance of all sorts of bliss and delights, the most illustrious princes of Kurdistan, such as Sayyid Muhammad Hakkārī, Šāh 'Alī Beg Bohti, Malik Halil Ayyūbī and Hasan Beg Pālūhī, partook in the pleasures and cheerfulness of this flamboyant feast. During these days, the young princes of Kurdistan were constantly occupied with games of polo and archery; they offered, as gifts, plates of gold coins and polished gold to the newly-weds. After carrying out the duties associated with the etiquette of feasts and banquets, he [Šaraf Hän] gave worthy presents and splendid robes of honour to the great and noble ruling princes and granted them leave.

Wednesday, June 26, 2024

Melayê Cizîrî's diwan

Lines attributed to Melayê Cizîrî:

Wali Dewana's diwan, 18th-century

1. 

Pearl-expert lord,

Pearl-expert lord,

My lord,
my master of pearls,

My master of noble origin

Of pure roots,

Nezami-like [my] Ferdowsi of Tus,

Jami of Jam,

[bearer of Khaqani's imagination,

Anwari of our time,

Sa'di,
master mariner of eloquence,

Hafez of Shiraz,

Sa'eb the second

Unique master of no equal match,

Your likeness is rare in this ghoulish world.


Prologue to Qubadi's 18th-century Kurdish epic

Pray make my mind sharp like Nezami's

With the kohl of knowledge,
brighten my eyes.

so that] the story of Shirin and Khosrow.

and Farhad,
who carved his way through the rock,
and his fate,

I compose in verse,
finer than pearls,

With the ambergris-scented perspiration of my pen.

To the lords of wisdom and faith (and)

The knowledgeable elders of Kurdistan,

Although it is said that Farsi is sugar,

Kurdish is much sweeter than Farsi.

For some reason in this cruel world

Everyone is attached to their own| language.

Of course anyone composing in any language,

And writing from any corner |of this world|,

Will beautify [their verse] like musk-scented fair brides,

With the adornments of pleasing rhetoric.

To be articulate and meaningful

And as eloquent as Jami's rhyme,

So that it is accepted by the wise,

And becomes sweeter than Molasses.

thus, I present this work in this ghoulish world

Following the verses of Nezami, complete

In the Kurdish tongue,
to be enjoyed [by the wise of Kurdistan]

Mehzuni's diwan

Verses by the Kurdish poet Mehzuni (1643-1701): 

1.

The mad waterfall

The wanton, maddened, lovesick waterfall

Sighing its song of desire,
scatters mountains of its pearls,

Its effervescence is like that of my beautiful sweetheart

Who, when she laughs,
brings forward the pearls (of her teeth).

It sings the theme of burning and longing

All day long,
all through the night.

Who knows,
for whose love,
he bears such anguish?

All true lovers share this condition

And in so doing,
ever seek their ideal

Tuesday, June 25, 2024

Bexud's diwan

1.

Oh, my kind friend, oh, you who encourage every hidden confession,
The scholar of my true thoughts, the pure soul who shares my voice,

Ask after me.

You’ll find that the kohl stone of distance
Has broken the glass of my arrival.

No sound is left to my tongue.

When I enter to worship, the room without you is like the plains of Shahrazur.

Cows swim the waters of my pure tears, flowing as the Zelm.

At night, I am the moth who orbits the lantern—

At sunrise, the devoted sunflower who searches Dukan’s towers.

Sorrow erases me, oh, beloved of Egypt.

There’s no trace of this second Yusuf’s mouth.

In the garden of heart-song, leaves fall as autumn, grief, arrives.

It’s late.

Come back.

The spring, my youth, has withered.

Don’t get left behind in Kirkuk.

Don’t spill my blood.

If you don’t come back from up there, you’ll kill me.

Act for me, as you delivered my greetings to the faqes.

After a handshake, present me as their certain servant.

Please, tell everyone, Bekhod has sweet speech.

Though I am the Khosrau of poetry, I am their servant.


2.

If the hoopoe comes on the morning wind to your Saba,

He will place the throne of Sulaiman in your desires.

Yesterday, my breath became a Chinese perfumery

When the morning wind brought the musky letter of your faith.

If you ask after my heart and soul, you’ll find a flower garden

Where, day and night, the simurgh of my tongue recites for you.

The heart has left.

They say it’s in Medina.

The soul is left.

I sacrifice it for you, sacrifice for you.

My eyes have become vessels for my tears, water.

I am beside you, your greenskeeper.

A hundred thanks to God who cured our patient.

You can interpret the internal.

Give a few prayers.

Bekhod is a homeless orphan, a child of the Prophet,

Fragile.

Remember him to your God.


3.

Since she left, I am estranged from my heart.

How I search.

There’s no trace of my heart.

I wonder which mountain hung my heart,

Or which sigh scorched my heart.

She shares my mouth, my care, my voice, oh, God.

She keeps my secrets and comes before me, oh, God.

She is a jewel to kings and orphans, oh, God.

What ocean has my heart fallen into?

It drowns.

He is Majnoon for strands of hair from which Leila, I wonder,

Or Wameq to which Azra’s magic, I wonder,

The crazy beloved of which desert, I wonder.

Which angel’s face has he seen that my heart is scared?

Just the thought of her line and mark turns him.

He spins around a shining lantern, her beauty.

He doesn’t know whose hands have ruined him.

He is like chaff in the mouth of the wind, my heart.

In that emptiness, that desert, who is his friend?

In those peaks and mountains, who is he heavy headed for?

Whose eyelashes, swords, have cut, and cut, and wounded him?

How does he survive, my heart, stabbed from every side?

Why won’t my tears pour down like rain?

Why won’t I be famous in the cities like Jacob?

I have asked strangers and loved ones about Joseph.

There is no clue from anyone about my heart.

Should I cry for him or his torn curtain of breath?

Or for the liver, punctured and in pieces?

What has he done, oh God, that his sleep, food, and water

Are sorrow, insomnia, and blood.

Oh, my heart.

What should I do, what should I say, for my vastly ill heart?

They witness my white hair, my yellow face.

Blistering groans fill my frigid mouth.

There must be a reason.

My heart must be tangled with tragedy.

That chest is empty of deceit.

He is without hate.

He serves the laws of the Prophet, nation, and religion.

It is known: he has gone to serve Medina’s leaders.

I thought he was doomed, but he is not: my heart.

I sacrifice myself for he who sacrifices for the Prophet

Like a servant: the dog at the door of the King of Arabs.

The King of Arabs had Qurayshi origins.

His two eyebrows slice my liver, my heart.

He who sacrifices himself grabs my soul.

Night and day, kings come to kiss his servant’s feet.

Bekhod, don’t wait anymore, hoping.

Even if he takes his head off, he won’t return to you, my heart.


4.

This vile and faithless world crushes me.

Planet, in your tilted path, mete out a bit of justice.

World, may God never grant you permanence.

Universe, may God get to you before Judgment Day

The way you burned the world down

With the poisoned bomb you threw.

He is a servant who worships his nation and gives his body,

A conscious man who secludes himself in corners,

A philosopher of Kurdish scholarship,

A scientist of the material and spiritual,

The owner of Life and Proverbs,

The master of prose, the soul of Mawlawi,

The gardener in old Tuz’ four gardens,

The man made wealthy by Ganjavi’s five treasures,

The nightingale in Shams’ rose garden,

The dove in Rumi’s cedar trees,

The man who, like Jesus’ pure breath, resurrected

Dead meanings in verse and prose,

An Ahmad Pasha without lion tamers.

He made the lion faithful to hunt and corner prey.

The lively gathering place for this era’s scholars,

The old man of this world, the youth of the next,

Shero’s hands of death took Haji Tofiq’s

Sweet soul like they took Khosrau’s.

You are a hundred dancing feet on today’s stage,

But tomorrow, you must bow your high head.

Since your bright sun set, Bekhod’s heart has been thick, like his nights.

Through generosity, you will ascend,

Reaching the heights of God’s lovers.

Brother, “the world is asleep.”

He who wakes

Tells you,

“You are drunk with sleep.”


Hamdi's diwan

1.

The lover and the Sufi, since creation: he is the angel and he the devil.

The wine’s elder and the tekiye’s sheikh: he is human, he is animal.

I took love’s secret to the ascetic. He nodded like a donkey.

I understood he was empty, his wide neck busy over bread.

Wine’s light differs from the electrical flame. One is wide thought’s lantern, one is the alley’s blessing.

When I embrace the glass chimney remembering only a neck.

I will break this neck when it reveals her neck, her necklace.

Flirtation’s wound and dagger’s wound: should I tell you their difference?

One is only waiting for treatment. The other is incurable.

The ringlet’s lover is never the man mad for her crown:

One arrives behind the ear while the other is the lip’s companion.

Do I dare compare a mountain of coral to your lip?

One is China’s fruit, the other is the sea’s fruitless tree.

The sun and beloved stood face to face, as if in a mirror. The beloved’s humiliated the sun’s.

They understood why the drunk eye and eyebrow fell onto each other.

The half-glance of one is the sign to murder the other.

Arrival and separation are poverty and fortune.

Arrival is trouble. Separation is simple.

It is love that leads Hamdi to philosophy’s field, to understanding.

Remove love and let me know if he retains any knowledge.


2.

Love reveals all secrets and yet keeps itself secret.

Love is full of the body and yet the body of soul. Each creature is a part of all parts of each creature.

Love is the source of each action in creation.

Existence is carried in the bright current of essence.

Love is the sea of God’s kind presence.

A person of insight is the candle lit by love’s hand.

Love is also the fool, whether menial or ruling.

Searching celebration, active as a bartender, Love is like wine, the limit of all gentility.

The heart shouldn’t be in less misery.

Love desires spectacle, that’s why there’s lightning.

To witness, the candle and flower gave their organs to this era.

Love is the fire set to both the nightingale’s heart and the moth.

What love? I have seen the fire of your ability.

Love has turned my heart into hell, not a kiln.

Ice is attracted to the lullaby of attraction’s power.

Love is the bright glory of lovers and colorful lovers.

The home of love is a place of pride, Hamdi.

Love is today’s problem and tomorrow’s ease.


3.

If I hadn’t fallen ill, afflicted by a callous lover, I would be numb as tar in the face of our daily woes.

The disciple and I, our calls tonight fell at one time—strange.

I whined for arrival and he labored to begin prayer.

I think he came to be the promise that kills me.

This stalker, this dog, that’s why he made this resolution.

Enough, dog, enough blood poured unjustly at this threshold.

The lover’s dwelling—was it ever transformed into Karbala’s fields?

You, stalker, my needs fall to you. Heal my illness.

Now, only the gentile writes amulets for sheikhs and mullahs.

When it comes to love, Hamdi, don’t taunt the heart.

It is the soul that burdened this neck, the day it said yes.


4.

The land is dear. Don’t say it is the earth’s dust.

It’s kohl dust that deepens the eyes of recognition.

Don’t say its stone thickened from water and dust.

Say the livers of Kurdish martyrs are fearless.

Wisdom is made. You call the Dijla’s waters blurred, lost,

But our pure source is a pure compass.

The long mountain bears the dams of Alexander.

The hills, like columns, rise into the ruling cosmos.

If the gardens don’t bloom and grass doesn’t gild,

It is their right—Kurds have been so long disrupted, in tragedy.

Hamdi knows the Turks and Iranians, foreigners,

Are enemies to Kurdish lands. If you see them, run.


5.

The wounded daffodil emerged like a lover

To meet the lover. Did it make remembrance for its country or the corner of the rose garden?

Let it be far from pain.

Oh, you, the bud that hasn't bloomed in the hearts of Kurds, will you

Emerge slowly like that?

Fields and markets receive flowers warmly.

The nightingale isn’t vigilant.

Oh, Creator of Jasmine, make grace sprout—enough difficulty.

Don’t you see anemones searching the mountain’s hem?

The headwaters? The streams?

Where is your balanced stature, you of the cedar’s height?

You, the rebel of the garden?

Without you, the tree trunks are crooked canes

Without clothing, without burdens.

You are a soul imprisoned in my psyche, oh, flower,

Like the branch’s caged heart.

The nightingale’s revolution and cry is listless.

I am sad and sorrowful.

Oh, idol, you prefer the love of the ignorant.

Do you remember? I used to say,

The lover is a beam, the moth dark night—

Is it a candle or a tree?

All lovers are without desire. All provinces are without light.

Cry at this story.

I wished a hundred times you would return to me, as you were last year

Just one time, this time.

See the effect of separation, the sorrow of distance.

No feeling is left.

Hamdi, in madness, became the city’s stadium.

He is in dire need.


6.

So they know how loyal a Kurd is to his nation

The Kurd must define his own origins.

They are ancient and many, but the eras have separated them.

Come, Kurds are a decent nation. They hold value.

They were snatched from Assur and Kabul, their first places.

Kurds spoke good Farsi and all the dialects of that time as well.

In their language, “birth” meant “brave man.”

In fact, in bravery, the Kurd is leader and sovereign.

They are the relatives of Zal, Rostam, Goderz, Gew and Bezhan.

The Kurds are clearly knights.

Adventure caused the ancient migration from Kabul.

History, generally, proves: Kurds are resilient.

They spend courage to buy self-worth.

The Kurd is most often life’s lion—at times, a black snake.

Even the lowest among Kurds eats excellence.

It doesn’t matter what the master says.

Kurds work.

None in this nation hopes to obey.

Why?

Examine each individual: he is a free Kurd.

In reality, a nation without education will be ignorant.

Fundamentally, the Kurd is ready for thought.

So, the era divides the nations of the universe it will accept.

The Kurd is jinxed, busy with misery and strategy.

See for yourself: the ignorant Kurd is like another nation’s wise man.

Even the man blind from birth, see, every Kurd is an eye.

A firm decision-maker, a dignified and dependable worker.

The Kurd discovers the unseen and keeps it secret.

Muslim clergy are bigoted, but the Kurd

Busies himself with repentance, devotion, and prayer.

The land of Kurdistan is the place of a perfect people.

Most men are paradigms of Kurdish swordsmanship.

If the others hadn’t forbidden it, this country

Would be independent, as Kurds still desire.

Even if they are drunk on drunkenness, pride’s wine, courage,

The Kurd is wise and sober, Hamdi, it is in his nature.


7.

Oh, land, the Turks and Persians long for you, Kurdistan.

The Kurdish nation takes pride in your honored address.

The pride satisfies you, morning and evening, months and days.

You wear it as a medal on your chest, a star on your shoulder.

This pride throws lightning, spills over in waves from jeweled fountains.

Is it water or the pure soul, the source of your animals?

Is it water or light the sparkles against the sun?

Wisdom’s people think it is my pearl, but it is yours.

Red and white flowers freckle the black earth as if

Your blush, talcum powder, and kohl have spilled out.

In love with your autumnal color, spring draws near.

Summer is hot with desire for your winter’s snow.

Why is Shahrazur a collection of the universe’s creation?

Visitors spread across the city market because you will visit.

I speak of your fruit and my pen fruits.

My poems are the nation’s, the heart’s, your ecstasy’s.

So I don’t step on you with a single foot, my thoughts

Will walk your lands or on my head, I’ll leave you.

The jewelry, the lovely golden belt of the Kurdish nation

Rustles and wraps around the stone waist of your mountains.

The rivers Sirwan and Zarb are cotton for your clothing.

The river Djla is the silk you cinch as your Botan’s belt.

The Kurd has raised his nose high as Kura Kazhaw Mountain,

As the Shamzeen of Baydin desires your Barzan.

The plains and mountains and sky of your lands reveal

The Kurds’ house: yard, wall, and rooftop.

The three-headed thorn has laid its short legs before Shirin’s castle.

Qandil Mountain is a long hand to light the lanterns of Wan Lake.

Piramagrun Mountain stole the kingdom’s crown for his high head.

If fogs fill the Damawand district, your Hawraman region is shamed.

The poems’ cursive lines, the high noses of the mountains,

All are ferociously for independence, ready at your command.

If Hamdi blames you, every once in a while, he isn’t wrong.

Don’t harbor thieves, don’t let them tell you they are your beloved.

Nari's diwan

1.

Oh, happy heart! It is announced: my beloved returned.

So, the fortunes of my life and respect returned.

Ask after my misfortune. What does grief do?
Muddies my head.

My luck’s regal headdress and my pride’s crown returned.

For a while, the flower was far, my nation’s earth without luster.

The lustrous flower my country’s garden has returned.

The happiness struck like lightning and mourning vanished and each breath became musky.

The one who owns my sword and pen returned.

Chest like a ney, heart like a lute, breath like a yaszy:
Singer, please, slowly.

My sorrow-remover has returned.

I lived, yes, day and night, shoved into a tight corner.

The light of the sun and moon, night and day, returned.

Barkeep, spin the wine glass like my landscape spins.

The time to dance, entertain, and get drunk has returned.

My verses are sugar cubes and carpeted fields of my ghazals.

A parrot by nature, the king, my castle’s cornerstone, returned.

A slim flowering tree in the garden has grown so that
The nightingale, the melody holder, returned.

The heart had lost the names of various verses and their order.

The garden’s splendor and the order of my epoch returned.

The dust of his hem is beyond anyone’s reach, anyone’s imagining.

Kohl for my pained, tearful eyes has returned.

Happiness has me so confused that I don’t know:

Is it the great Mahmood or last year’s prisoner who has returned?

For Nari, who is mindful, inertia was a hardship without end.

The khan, a man of action, magnitude, and gravity, has returned.


2.

My eyes, don’t point the arrow of your lashes at me again.

Please, there is no fault, no atrocity.
Don’t rain arrows down on me.

My heavy illness has its cure in your glass face.

Face me—don’t guide me to Luqman’s house.

My illness is heavy, oh gentle physician,
Don’t trouble yourself over my cure.

It’s pointless.

Tell your hair, that barricade, let me come and go.

I’m poor. Don’t wish pain and beatings on me.

Bearing the sad burden of separation from you wearies me.

Don’t leave me far from your face, your hair, disheveled.

Why do you bar me from the garden of your arrival, by God,

Don’t make me crazy, obscure, a vagrant across plains and fields.

Don’t fasten the button of your collar with the honor’s finger.

Faithless girl: don’t deprive me of the sight of the apple garden.

Show your mark and my yearning, a marketplace, will resurge.

Your beauty sells.

Don’t deprive me of crying and yearning.

Put your dark hair away from your cheek for a while.

Don’t keep my portion of my full moon’s shine and beam.

By sharia, I deserve zakat: your beauty.

You own countries—don’t consume my charity.

She told me: Nari, what’s all this talk of sharia and fox hunting?

If I become Hatim, don’t let me go delirious for blessings and bread.

Haji Qadir Koye's diwan, 19th-century

1

World, you are an island in the ocean I cried.
It is no rumor: you are Zin and I am Mam.

No Adam, you have not fathered
An angel’s face, from Adam until now.

I am a sheikh. My head is a mountain, my breath
Is a breeze, my eyes a fountain, my turban, fog.

They say, “The beloved will come to my pillow.”
I know better. God knows even better.

The lip of Zuhak pleaded, “The snakes of my hair
When do they eat? Where is their ration, a piece of Jam’s head?”

Don’t say Sufis are liars and mullahs speak true.
They are the same, one is not more or less.

A truthful disciple and a dignified sheikh,
Their guards are lazy, their lovers unconcerned.

The great Constantinople is darkened:
Nobodies govern and darken literature.

With His order and law and system,
God made His own red a misery.

The two boys are opposites: life and death.
Each an example of his mother.

They don’t look like each other: the stalker and Haji Qadr.
God, humble him and make Haji holy.

Monday, June 24, 2024

Abu Muslim Khorasani: Kurd as an ethnonym in the 8th-century

Abu Muslim Khorasani became a figure of legend after his death, and over the centuries a multitude of conflicting origin stories and fantastical tales accumulated around his name. As is often the case, the historical reality is likely to be found closer to the earliest sources. One of the most valuable testimonies comes from Abu Dulama, a contemporary of Abu Muslim, who described him as follows:

O Abu Mujrim! God never replaces by afflictions the favours which he grants to his creatures, unless his creatures misapply them. Ah thou wouldst meditate treason against the empire of al-Mansur! Is it not true that thy own progenitors, the Kurds, were always a race of traitors? Thou didst menace me with death, Abu Mujrim! but that lion with which thou didst threaten me, has turned upon thyself!

Abu Dulama's allusion is preserved in the writings of Ibn Khallikan, though he is by no means the only author to transmit it. The attribution is likely authentic. What makes the passage particularly intriguing is that it provides an eighth-century example of the Kurdish label being tied to genealogy rather than a social category. In this respect, the account aligns closely with both pre-Abbasid and post-Abbasid conceptions of Kurdish identity, suggesting a remarkable degree of continuity in how the term was understood across the centuries, contrary to assumptions that the label functioned merely as a social category.

Abulfeda, on the origin of the Kurds & Kurds as "Persians"

Abulfeda, the fourteenth-century Ayyubid prince of Hama, sets forth his preferred view on the origins of the Kurds amid a sea of competing and often contradictory traditions. In his conception, the Daylamites, Gilaks, and Kurds are all connected, each representing a branch of the broader category of "Persians."

Abulfeda writes: 

The Persian nation is in the middle of the inhabited world, and it is called the land of Persia, and from it are Kerman, Ahvaz, and other regions that would take too long to mention. There has been disagreement about the lineage of the Persians. It has been said that they are from the descendants of Faris b. Aram b. Sam and the Persians say that they are from the descendants of Gayōmart. Gayōmart, according to them is the progenitor of mankind, like Adam according to Muslims. They mention that the kingdom remained among them from Gayōmart, and he is Adam, until the dominance of Islam, except for a break that occurred in short periods that are not to be taken into account, like the dominance of Zahak. The kings of Persia were the greatest kings of the world. They had a kingdom that no other king had ever achieved. The Persians have many subgroups, among them the Daylamites, who are the inhabitants of the mountains, and the Gilaks, who inhabit the valleys that make up the Daylam Mountains, and their lands are on the coast of the Sea of Tabaristan. Among them are the Kurds, and their homes are the mountains of Shahrazur.


Abulfedaʾ's conception is better understood when read alongside more detailed works that make similar claims. One such example is the eleventh-century Andalusian author al-Andalusi. In this framework, there is little resemblance to modern linguistic classifications. Before "Kurdish" came to be recognized as a distinct linguistic category, the languages now grouped under that label were often subsumed under broader designations, one of which was "Persian."

This categorization extended beyond language. The ethnonym "Persian" could also be applied to regions inhabited by Kurds and other Iranian peoples. In Abulfedaʾ's account, the Daylamites, Gilaks, and Kurds are the only nations explicitly identified as Persian. This is intriguing for several reasons. He certainly possessed the vocabulary to distinguish speakers of Dari or Farsi in the narrower sense in which those terms are understood today, yet such categories are absent from his discussion. Instead, his use of "Persian" appears to reflect a broader ethnogeographic conception rather than a precise linguistic one: 

Şāʻid4 has said: Persians were the first nation. Their abodes were in the centre of the inhabited world. Their country extends from the mountain in the north of Iraq, near to the mountain pass (aqabah) of Hulwān, wherein is Media (al-Māhāt), to al-Kurğ, al-Dīnawar, Hamadān, Qum, Qāšān, and other places, to Armenia and Derbend, which is close to the Sea of the Hazar, and further to Azerbaijan, Tabaristān, Müqān, al-Baylaqān, Adān, al-Šābirān, Rayy, al-Talaqān, and Ğurğān, extending to the area of Hurāsān, such as Nīsābūr, al-Marw, Sarahš, Herat, Hwārizm, Balh, Buhārā, Samarqand, Fargānah, al-Šāš, and other areas of Hurāsān, and still to the area of Siğistān, Kirman, Fārs, al-Ahwāz, Işbahān, and the adjacent areas. All these formed one kingdom under one king, and under one language, Persian, although they differed from one another in some few words (lugāt), but their language had the same number of consonants and they combined them together in the same manner. This considered, their differences separated them from one another in other matters of this language. (These languages were) such as Fahlawiyyah, Dariyyah, and other variants of the languages of Fārs.


Mythical origin stories about Kurds

Sharafxan, the Kurdish ruler of Bidlis, records a wide range of mythological traditions concerning the origins of the Kurds while generally refraining from endorsing any particular account. One notable exception is his dismissive treatment of the claim that the Kurds were descended from jinns, a belief he regarded as unworthy of serious consideration.

Sharafxan writes: 

The writers of the book of prudence-"But [only] He is capable of achieving all things"-have commenced [this topic] by revealing in their words that there are many differing accounts on the ancestry of the Kurdish nation. Among these are those which [connect them] to the time of Dahhāk of Serpents, who was the fifth of the Peshdādi kings, and who occupied the throne of Persia and Central Asia (Eran and Türān) and the rest of the world after Jamshid. He was so cruel and irreligious that some historians have interpreted Shaddad [mentioned in the Koran] as being him. Hence an eloquent scholar described his tyranny:

Upon the departure of Jamshid from this abode of horrors, Dahhak occupied the throne.

Destiny rendered the Seven Climes the realm of the Shaddad-mannered Dahhāk.

The foundations laid by that enemy of faith, were not in the tradition of the bygone kings.

In his days these words were commonly said, that his days were the evillest of days.


In addition to his tyrannical nature, two veins had grown out of his shoulders like two serpents. This is what the learned call cancer. The strange malady caused much pain and suffering to Dahhāk, to the point that his patience and forbearance were at their end. No matter how many skilled physicians and astute scientists strove to alleviate his condition and restore his health, no results were forthcoming. Until the accursed Satan appeared to them in the guise of a physician. Addressing Dahhāk, he stated that: "your cure is found solely in young human brains, which are to be placed as ointment on the cancer." Following the advice of that accursed one, the reprehensible undertaking proved effective. The pain ceased at once and comfort was restored. Accordingly, every day two innocent youths were given to murder by the blade of injustice of that tyrant, and their brains served as remedy for that incurable malady.

For a while, this tyranny, oppression and inordinate conduct continued, affecting the noble and the commoner [alike]. The one appointed to [prepare] the victims was an extremely kind man, merciful and righteous at heart. He took umbrage and pity at this unbecoming affair. Every day, therefore, he would kill [only] one person, mixing his brains with those of a sheep. The other person he would secretly set free, with the proviso that that person leave his homeland and take refuge on the mountain tops, where no sign of habitation or human occupation could be found. Little by little a large number of people from every land and [conversant] in various tongues gathered in that place and location, where they intermarried and multiplied. Their children and progeny grew in numbers [and] they came to be called Kurds.

When a long time had passed, as a result of their avoiding intercourse with other people and remaining fearful of visiting [other] settlements, they developed their own language and customs. In the forests and mountains, meadows and peaks they engaged in construction and cultivation. Many of them gathered wealth and flocks, [and] dispersed into the plains and steppes. Another tradition maintains that they are called "Kurd" due to their overwhelming bravery and courage, which is an inalienable mark of that nation. As to others who maintain that "Kurds are a division of the genies," may God remove the cloud from their minds. And yet other chroniclers relate that demons married with humans, giving birth to the Kurdish nation. God knows all that come to pass. The Kurdish nation divides into four branches, each with its own different tongue and customs. First is the Kurmānj, second the Lur, third the Kalhur, and fourth the Guran. 



Saturday, June 22, 2024

Golden clothes of Kurdish tribes

In a 17th century Safavid collection of stories, the biography of Firuzshah, the Kurdish founding father of the Safavid house is introduced and why 'of the Golden Crown' was attached to his name. It's likely that the detail has some historical reality, in the sense that it's corroborated from other examples in Kurdish history that such titles meant that the figure or tribe held a fiefdom, and a way to display that was for the members to wear some golden piece, as in the example of a Kurdish tribe, whose name means: 'of the Golden Shoe':

The historians of events and the tellers of tales and the sugar-chewing parrots of fine discourse have related thus: In the time of the Emam who commands obedience and demands protection, the Emam Musā Kāzim, who was the hon-orable ancestor of Soltan Mohammad Firuzshāh, Solțān Seyyed Firuzshāh was living in the Abode of Right Guidance, Ardabil. God Almighty, by the light of divine knowledge and the flow of infallible causality, had raised that victorious and noble prince to a high station. Solţān Adham Shah, the son of Ebrahim Adham, was king of Iran. In his time, most provinces, such as Ādharbāyjān, clung to the paths of Sunnism and Christianity, and the true sect of the Twelve Emāms was hidden.

When the fame of the perfection of Solțān Firuzshāh had swept the world, it reached the hearing of the eminent king Solțān Adham, the son of Soltan Ebrahim. The king's whole being was taken up with the fervent desire to see that garden of truth. When he arrived in Ardabil, the noble seyyeds and juris-prudents and lords and common people all welcomed him. When Solțān Ad-ham's eye fell from afar on the beauty of Soltan Firuzshāh, the light from the forehead of that chosen one of God was so resplendent that the world-illumi-nating sun was as darkest night next to it. He saw his own royal magnificence pale before the grandeur of that prince, brilliant like the eyes of a div. He was swept away by the pleasure of beholding that graceful rose, and love penetrat-ed his heart so much that he opened his arms in mercy and affection and warmly embraced him. After this, they began to converse, asking each other about past affairs, then went together to the home of Solțān Firuzshāh, form-ing an auspicious conjunction.¹ After some small talk, one Solțān asked the other:

"What was the purpose of your undertaking such a long journey?"

Solţān Adham replied: "The fame of your disciples had reached our ears, and some ignorant and superficial people said, 'Don't let Solțān Firuzshāh gradually become lord over the land of Iran! It is better to test him, like miners do, by the touchstone of investigation. If he proves a fraud, purify him with the fire of wrath, so that by going through a few crucibles he may become genuine.' No matter how much they repeated their talk about you in secret, though, hatred for you found no way into my heart; rather, perfect happiness befell my mind. Because of this, I got up and came here, and I was exalted by our meeting. Since not one speck of darkness is ever visible when I look in the mirror of your face, I would like you to do me a favor: Rule over Iran as a brother, for my mind is at peace regarding you." No matter how much Solțān Adham importuned him in this way, Solțān Firuzshāh kept refusing. Finally Solțān Adham made him swear an oath to the holy Emāms, entreating him to accept the province of Ardabil as his fief. Firuzshāh, because of the oath he had sworn, could not refuse what the Solţān was saying, so he accepted. Then Soltan Adham took off his jeweled crown and placed it on his Firuzshāh's head, saying: "We name you Solțān Firuzshāh of the Golden Crown (zarrin-kolāh)." After that, Solţān Adham went off to Balkh. Solțān Firuzshah of the Golden Crown provided the people with guidance on the Straight Path until his ap-pointed time came. When he became ill, he summoned his noble son Evazolkhavāşş, naming him in his will as his heir-apparent. Then he com-mended himself to God and was joined to His mercy.






The remark of an Armenian

Creagh, who visited several Kurdish-populated regions in the late 1870s, was admonished by a wise Armenian to respect the Kurdish mustache:

JOURNEYING alone along the wild mountains between Kars and Bayazid, I first became ac-quainted with the celebrated Koords, whose feudal system of government and aristocratic manners assimilate them to a great extent with the Bosniak Mussulmans, living at the very opposite side of the Ottoman Empire. It appears to me that the modern Koord differs very little from the swarms of light horsemen who resisted so successfully the arms of the Crusaders. He is mounted on a hardy, spirited, and well-bred horse, capable of enduring the ex-tremes of both fatigue and hunger. His saddle is decorated with every imaginable kind of caparison or ornament, which dangles down towards the ground.

His flowing garments of the brightest and most fantastic hues, his voluminous turban of a sombre colour, his long flowing locks reaching half-way down his back, his immense mous-tachios, black and piercing eyes, insolent ex-pression and proud display of pistols, knives, yataghans, scimitars, blunderbuss, long gun, and sword, besides an enormous spear about twelve feet long, ornamented (instead of a flag like that of an European lancer) with a bundle exactly resembling in size and shape an ordinary football, from which several strings or streamers are dependent give him a truculent and aggressive aspect; quite justifying the remark of an Armenian, who, looking after one of them and getting easier as the distance increased between them, said in a very solemn and im-pressive tone: "You may laugh if you please, but were you to meet that fellow alone, all your courage would evaporate."

The Newroz ruler

Taufiq Wahbi briefly mentions the now-extinct Kurdish custom of the Newroz ruler. The custom survived into the twentieth century and was claimed to be common throughout Kurdistan. The custom was very similar to the European Lord of Misrule festival.


A photo from Mahabad in 1895 shows Kurds celebrating the Newroz ruler, with the mock ruler seated on his throne and ministers/soldiers around him to carry out the mock ruler's directives.


Kurdish Sufis from Diyarbakr in the Safavid realm

Kurds remained an important element in the Safavid order during Shah Ismail II's reign. According to reports, Kurds affiliated with the order from outlying locations did travel to the Safavid heartland to be in the middle of events:




Kurds amazed by Western medicine

Western knowledge of medicine was widely regarded as the most spectacular among Kurds who had come into contact with Europeans. A travelogue written in the early 20th century has various amusing stories about Kurdish engagement with Europeans:

On another occasion, a Kurd came to one of our European staff, with a request to have a tooth extracted. The Frank, who had served some apprenticeship at that art, did his office deftly; and the Kurd, filled with gratitude, offered two mejids (seven shillings) as a fee. This was refused, as no fees were taken; and the patient was even more astonished. However, he was a Mussulman gentleman, and to receive a benefit without making return for it was unthinkable; hence if his next proposal was bizarre, at least the kindness was genuine. "Look here, Effendim, you are a Christian, are you not? Well, when I get to Paradise, I shall have seventy houris. You will not have any where you are going; and I think I may spare you-two!" An interesting corollary to the above proposition would seem to be that the market value of a houri is 3/6 sterling, plus compound interest on that sum for say twenty years, which seems cheap.

Kurds may have held unrealistic expectations on the field. Some sought out Europeans to address the Muslim world's most serious problem since the seventh century: the evil eye. If Western medicine was so advanced, could it cure the evil eye?

Perhaps our most remarkable patient, however, was a poor fellow who was brought in by a deputation of the men of his village, with a request that we would cure him of the evil eye! If he looked at a crock of milk, it upset; if at a sheep, the wolf got it; if at a child, it was likely enough to tumble into the fire. They were quite fair about the matter, fully recognizing that it was the poor fellow's mis-fortune, not his fault. Still, he was such a nuisance to all the neighbours, that it was to be hoped that English know-ledge would cure him. Unfortunately, we had to own that there was nothing in the British Pharmacopœia that professes to deal with this form of trouble; and though we had, as a matter of fact, plenty of charms against the evil eye in our possession (invocations of the Archangel Gabriel against "that light and vile daughter of perdition" with power to send it away " into the desolate land, where cocks crow not and foot of beast treads not, there to walk up and down in dry places, seeking rest and finding none ") yet we felt on the whole that it would not be proper to use these, and the deputation had to go away disappointed.

In this story, a Kurd makes a tribal request of the Englishmen he encounters, demanding that his arm be healed after being injured in battle with the British. Pretty reasonable demand, yet the Englishmen are not held accountable because, in the end, Kurds are too soft-hearted:

Once, on a journey, we have known surgical aid demanded in rather menacing fashion. We had halted by a spring, when a party of Kurds, all fully armed of course, turned up from the opposite direction, and demanded of our servant who and what we might be. Hearing that we were English, the leader strode over to us at once, displayed a paralysed arm, and observed, "You have got to cure that."

That is quite beyond our power, we fear," said we, you must take that to the hospital in Mosul."

"Well you know, I think you ought to cure it; because you did it."

We did it? We never set eyes on you before."

"Well, if it was not you, it was your Consul; but you English are all one set. He did it when he was shooting at us."

Our friend was, as we then understood, one of the gang who had, a few years previously, attacked a British Consul in this neighbourhood.† There had been a pretty sharp skirmish, of which this gentleman bore the token in a bullet that had cut the sinews of his right arm. The Consul gained great kudos in the affair; for he not only beat off his assailants, but killed their leader, a man who had the reputation of being "proof" against shot and steel. Such reputations are almost as common in these regions now as they were in the highlands of Scotland in the seventeenth century; but (in spite of the local facilities) the possessors of such immunity are not held to have acquired it by direct compact with the Evil One, like Claverhouse and Dalziel, but to have been born with it in course of nature. Mirza Agha, the Kurd in question, certainly did his best to live up to his character; for though he received three wounds that would each have been fatal to most men (two in the head, and one in the body) he did not die until the fifth day after the battle.

This comrade of his was not disposed to take vengeance (as might perhaps have been expected) on all and sundry Englishmen for the loss of his arm. Having expressed his sense of what was befitting, and provided us with an instance of the survival of tribal responsibility, for which as students of history we were bound to be grate-ful to him, he went on his way and we saw him no more.




On the size of the official Ayyubid army and group loyalty

Numbers are frequently inflated in premodern texts. Sometimes the estimate comes as a surprise. The day's surprise comes from Maqrizi of the Mamluk period. It's surprising because it's realistic. 

Al Maqrizi (15th-century):

I found in the manuscript of al-As'ad Ibn Mammātī that the number of soldiers in Egypt at the time of Ruzzīq ibn Şalih Talā'i ibn Ruzzīq was forty thousand horsemen, thirty-six thou-sand galleys carrying ten thousand fighting men. And this toward the end of the Fāțimid state!

After Sultan al-Malik al-Nāşir Şalāḥ al-Din Yūsuf ibn Ayyüb had put an end to their regime, he rid the Egyptian army of the black slave troops, the Egyptian emirs, the Bedouins, the Armenians, and others, and recruited Kurds and Turks as his personal troops. The strength of his army in Egypt came to exactly twelve thousand horsemen.

After his death, that number broke up, and only 8,500 horsemen were left with his son, al-Malik al-'Azīz 'Uthman, in Egypt. Among these, however, were some with ten vassals, some with twenty, some with even more, up to a hundred vassals to a single trooper, so that when they rode in parade outside Cairo, they numbered more than two hundred thousand.

Subsequently, they continued to disintegrate and to quar-rel among themselves, until their state came to an end with the putsch of their Turkish slave troops. These then imitated their (for-mer) masters, the Ayyübids, and restricted themselves to Turks and some Kurds (as troops). They recruited a great many slaves that were imported from the land of the Turks, so that the mamluks of al-Malik al-Manşür Qalāwün are said to have numbered seven thousand-or ten thousand, according to others, and the number of the mamluks of his son al-Ashraf Khalil ibn Qalāwūn was twelve thousand. Al-Qādī al-Fadil reports among the events of the year 567

(A.D. 1171/2): On the 8th of Muharram (September 11), Saladin's or-ders came out for the troops, old and new, to mount up and ride in review, after all units, present and absent, had been put on alert earlier. Their arrival complete, their armament and horses replen-ished, huge numbers of troops were present on that day. No Mus-lim ruler, as many a wisened whitebeard could attest, had ever pos-sessed the like of them, and the emissaries of the Byzantines and Franks witnessed a spectacle to twist the infidels' noses. The march-past of the troops continued, column after column, tulb af-ter tulb-tulb, in the language of the Turkomans, means a senioremir entitled to a standard and a bugler, and commanding from two hundred to one hundred to seventy knights-until the day was over and night fell and it was daylight again. And their parade was still not finished. The number of troops present was 147 battalions, with twenty battalions absent, and is estimated at close to 14,000 knights, most of them tawashisa tawāshī is one receiving an al-lowance of anywhere from seven hundred to one thousand one hundred and twenty (dinars), who has a baggage train of ten head or less, consisting of horses, packhorses, mules and camels, and a slave to carry his arms and Qarāghulāmiyyah making up the rest.

In that year, says (al-Qādī al-Fadil), Saladin also reviewed the Judhām bedouins, who mustered seven thousand horsemen (at the time). Their strength was fixed at no more than thirteen hundred horsemen, and on that basis the canonical tithe was collected. (The basis) was originally one million dinars [in terms of a computation which, although established in principle, is not collectible], and that was now settled on the Thalabah, who were much upset about it and hinted they might go over to the side of the Franks.

 Among the events of the month of Rajab (November/De-cember) of the year 577 (A.D. 1181) he reports: Sultan Saladin con-tinued in that year to look into the affairs of the fiefs and to find out about their cadastrally assessed values, whether they had been increased or decreased, (in an effort) to nail down what was illegaland to encourage meritorious practice, until in the end the effec-tive troop strength was fixed at 8,640 horse. 

The funds set aside for them came to 3,670,000 dinars, and that ex-clusive of: troopers stripped of their benefices and put on tithe pensions; Arab nomads with land grants in the Sharqiyyah and Buhayrah provinces; Kinānah and Egyptian contingents; ju-risconsults, judges and Sufis; and what falls under the jurisdiction of the (special) dīwāns no less than one million dinars.

Why would Saladin modify the demographics of Egypt's army when he took over? Loyalty was the primary consideration. The recruiting of Turkish troops may not be particularly flattering. There is a long history of why rulers of Islamicate history enlisted Turkish troops. They were known for being faithful servants to their masters, as well as low-risk, cost-effective fighters. Mirrors for princes dating back even further than the Ayyubids provide recommendations for Turkish troops because they were plainly viewed as great cannon fodder. The ayyubids continued to follow the same custom. The ayyubids' decision to recruit and place Kurds at the forefront is an interesting but expected recruitment. That was also a loyalty-based decision. That link was strengthened by cultural affinity, similar to the decision of the Ayyubids to fill the literati spots of their empire with Kurds and other Iranians.

The link associated with groups influenced political calculations and the analyses/choices that premodern people made in their daily lives. According to Ibn Khallikan, the Ayyubids prioritized this aspect from the start.


Ibn Khallikan (13th-century):

During the negotiations relating to the investiture to the Fatimid vizierate, 'Isâ al-Hakkârî, a Kurd, persuaded Qutb al-Dîn Tulayl to drop his candidacy in favor of Saladin: "Saladin and you are both from the same group. He is from kurdish origin (inna aslahu min al-akrâd). Then you won't let the power pass to the Turks. He promised to increase his income. So he obeyed Saladin (atâ'ahu)".


Ibn Khaldun has interesting words to give on the connection between religious propaganda and group feeling in Islamicate history, where religious discourses served as a cloak for the real ambitions. 


Ibn Khaldun (15th-century):

Religious propaganda cannot materialize without group feeling. This is because, as we have mentioned before, every mass (political) undertaking by necessity requires group feeling. This is indicated in the afore-mentioned tradition: "God sent no prophet who did not enjoy the protection of his people." If this was the case with the prophets, who are among human beings those most likely to perform wonders, one would (expect it to apply) all the more so to others. One cannot expect them to be able to work the wonder of achieving superiority without group feeling.

It happened to the Sufi shaykh Ibn Qasi, the author of the Kitab Khal' an-na'layn on Sufism. He rose in revolt in Spain and made propaganda for the truth shortly before the time when the propaganda of the Mahdi (of the Almohads) started. His followers were called al-Murabitun (Ibn Qasi) had some success, because the Lamtunah (Almoravids) were preoccupied with their own difficulties with the Almohads. (But) there were no groups and tribes there to defend him. When the Almohads took over control of the Maghrib, he soon obeyed them and participated in their cause. He took the oath of allegiance to them at his stronghold, the fortress of Arcos (de la Frontera). He handed his frontier province over to them and became their first missionary in Spain. His revolt was called the revolt of the Murabitun.

To this chapter belong cases of revolutionaries from among the common people and of jurists who undertake to reform evil (practices). Many religious people who follow the ways of religion come to revolt against unjust amirs. They call for a change in, and prohibition of, evil (practices) and for good practices. They hope for a divine reward for what they do. They gain many followers and sympathizers among the great mass of the people, but they risk being killed, and most of them actually do perish in consequence of their activities as sinners and unrewarded, because God had not destined them for such (activities as they undertake). He commands such activities to be undertaken only where there-exists the power to bring them to a successful conclusion. Muhammad said: "Should one among you see evil activities, he should change them with his hand. If he cannot do that, he should change them with his tongue. And if he cannot do that, he should change them with his heart." 

Rulers and dynasties are strongly entrenched. Their foundations can be undermined and destroyed only through strong efforts backed by the group feeling of tribes and families, as we have mentioned before. Similarly, prophets in their religious propaganda depended on groups and families, though they were the ones who could have been supported by God with anything in existence, if He had wished, but in His wisdom He permitted matters to take their customary course.

If someone who is on the right path were to attempt (religious reforms) in this way, (his) isolation would keep him from (gaining the support of) group feeling, and he would perish. If someone merely pretends to (achieve religious reforms) in order to gain (political) leadership, he deserves to be hampered by obstacles and to fall victim to perdition. (Religious reforms) are a divine matter that materializes only with God's pleasure and support, through sincere devotion for Him and in view of good intentions towards the Muslims. No Muslim, no person of insight, could doubt this (truth).

In Islam, the first person to start that sort of thing in Baghdad was a certain Khalid ad-Daryush. Tahir had revolted. Al-Amin was killed. Al-Ma'mun in Khurasin was slowed down in his advance toward the 'Iraq, and he appointed 'Ali b. Musa ar-Rida, a descendant of al-Husayn, successor to the throne. The 'Abbasids showed their disapproval (of that move). They banded together in order to revolt and to renounce obedience to al-Ma'mun and to choose some one else in his stead. Allegiance was sworn to Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi. Trouble broke out in Baghdad. The troublesome elements among the underworld and the soldiery were given a free hand against the decent citizens. They robbed the people and filled their pockets with loot, which they sold openly in the markets. The inhabitants turned for protection to the authorities, but these did not help them. The religious and good citizens, thereupon, united in order to stop the criminals and to put an end to their misdeeds. At that moment, a man named Khalid ad-Daryush appeared in Baghdad. He appealed to the people to obey the law. Many responded to his call. They fought the troublesome elements and defeated them. Khalid had them beaten and punished. After him, there appeared another man from among the populace of Baghdad, by name Abu Hatim Sahl b. Salamah al-Ansari. He hung a copy of the Qur'an around his neck, and appealed to the people to obey the law and to act in accordance with the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet. High and low, Hashimites and others, all followed him. He established himself in the palace of Tahir and took over the government office(s). He went about Baghdad, kept out all those who were frightening wayfarers, and put an end to the payment of protection money to the underworld. When Khalid adDaryush said to him that he (Khalid) was not against the government, Sahl replied that he (for his part) was fighting all those who acted contrary to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, whoever they might be. This happened in the year 201 [817]. Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi sent an army against (Sahl). He was defeated and captured, and his power quickly dissolved. He barely escaped with his life.

Later on, many deluded individuals followed, that example. They took it upon themselves to establish the truth. They did not know that they would need group feeling for that. They did not realize how their enterprise must necessarily end and what they would come to. With respect to such people, it is necessary to adopt one of the following courses. One may either treat them, if they are insane, or one may punish them either by execution or beatings when they cause trouble, or one may ridicule them and treat them as buffoons. 

Some of these people allied themselves with the Expected Fatimid. They pretended to be, either he himself, or one of his missionaries, despite their ignorance of everything concerning the Fatimid. Most men who adopt such ideas will be found to be, either deluded and crazy, or to be swindlers who, with the help of such claims, seek to obtain (political) leadership -which they crave and would be unable to obtain in the natural manner. They believe that such claims will be instrumental in bringing to them the fulfillment of their hopes. They do not consider the disaster that will overtake them in consequence. The trouble they create will speedily cause their death and bring their trickery to a bitter end.

At the beginning of this century, a man of Sufi leanings, by name at-Tuwayziri, appeared in as-Sus. He went to the Mosque of Massah on the shore of the Mediterranean and pretended to be the Expected Fatimid. He was taking advantage of the common people's firm belief in predictions to the effect that the Fatimid was about to appear and that his mission would originate at that Mosque. A number of ordinary Berber groups were attracted to him like moths (to the flame). Their chiefs then feared that the revolt might spread. The leader of the Masmudah at that time, 'Umar asSaksiwi, secretly sent someone to him, who killed him in his bed.

Also at the beginning of this century, a man known as al-'Abbas appeared among the Ghumarah. He made a similar claim. The lowest among the stupid and imbecile members of those tribes followed his blethering. He marched on Badis, one of the (Ghumarah) cities, and entered it by force. He was then killed, forty days after the start of his mission. He perished like those before him. 

There are many similar cases. The mistake (they all make) is that they disregard the significance of group feeling (for success) in such matters. If deceit is involved, it is better that such a person should not succeed and be made to pay for his crime. "That is the sinners' reward." 











Shaykh Khidr Mihrani, the Kurdish seer

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